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ADJECTIVES - EXTREME/STRONG ADJECTIVES
We can use adverbs with adjectives to adjust the meaning of the adjective slightly. Typical adverbs of this sort include very, really, quite, extremely:
It’s really cold out today (a bit more than just averagely cold)
Careful with the soup, it’s still quite hot (it’s pretty hot!)
I’m very tired today (I’m not just slightly tired but ‘a lot’!)
Some adjectives are known as Extreme Adjectives and can be understood to mean very + adjective. In other words they describe a noun so strongly, it’s as if we’ve used ‘very’ (but we haven’t!) For example, we would use the word boiling instead of ‘very hot’, or hilarious instead of ‘very funny’. You can modify extreme adjectives with other adverbs like extremely, really, absolutely, but not 'very' because it's already understood that it is ‘very’!
My father was absolutely furious when I crashed the car (very angry and in this case, more than furious!)
They live in a huge house in the countryside (it’s a very big house but not a 'very huge’ house because ‘huge’ is an extreme adjective, so we don’t use ‘very’)
Put the fire on. This room is freezing (very cold)
Andalusia is boiling in August. Sometimes the temperature reaches 45 degrees! (Very hot!)
If you’re unsure if you’re using an ‘extreme’ adjective there are plenty of lists of them on the internet (also known as ‘strong adjectives’). Here are some more to give you an idea:
hideous, fascinating, furious, sweltering, terrifying, hysterical, terrible, dreadful, awful, awesome, amazing, fabulous, superb, wonderful, disgusting, spotless, filthy.
ADJECTIVES - WORD ORDER
In English, multiple adjectives before a noun generally follow this order:
Adjectives of Opinion followed by Descriptive adjectives.
Adjectives of Opinion can be split into General Opinion and Specific Opinion, and those of General Opinion come first. These adjectives can describe almost any noun and include: good, bad, lovely, strange, silly, pure, absolute, beautiful, brilliant, nice, perfect, nasty, excellent, definite, awful, important and wonderful.
Adjectives of Specific Opinion are used to describe particular kinds of noun, e.g. food, furniture, buildings, people, animals: tasty, delicious, meaty, comfortable, ornate, clever, approachable, friendly, intelligent, old, young, tame and fierce.
I got soaked because I had to use that horrible old raincoat of yours!
Thank you for that lovely delicious meal, it was wonderful!
Ignore him, he's just a foolish young man with no sense.
Descriptive adjectives tend to stick to the following word order:
Size Age Condition Shape Colour Pattern Origin Material Purpose
His accident had left him with a large red triangular-shaped scar on his knee
The cat was lying on my new striped Turkish rug
She lived in a massive old derelict house on the outskirts of town
I covered him up with a small cotton sheet and he went straight to sleep
(These types of adjectives are known as Cumulative and don't require commas in between. Adjectives that are roughly of equal importance are called Coordinate adjectives - they come from the same descriptive area as above, e.g. two adjectives from 'size' or two from 'condition', and traditionally they have a comma in between. You can spot coordinate adjectives by swapping them round or replacing the comma with 'and' and the meaning of the sentence is still clear: It was a blustery, rainy day; He was an enormous, great bear of a man with a long, bushy beard.)
See the EHP Camino Blog for more examples of adjectival order.
adverbs
This is not an exhaustive guide to adverbs but a brief summary (all good grammar books will have a much more thorough analysis of adverbs and their uses). For the use of adjectives in place of adverbs see the Grammar Rays notes on Linking Verbs.
When I was at school I used to think adverbs were very tricky to understand, unlike nouns and adjectives, which seemed pretty straightforward to me. If adverbs confuse you too, just remember: adverbs add to or change the meaning of verbs or adjectives.
The next difficulty is where to put them in a clause!
Adverbs DO NOT go between a verb and its object, so DON'T SPLIT THEM UP! A very common error is I speak well English - the verb and its object here are speak and English. If we remember NOT to split them up we say correctly I speak English well ('well' is the adverb).
Unfortunately for learners of English, different adverbs can go in different positions in a clause (sorry!) They can go at the beginning, middle or end of a clause, depending on the adverb, and they don't always stick to the rules when they appear in literary English. Note also that adverbs usually follow the verb 'to be' (except when it is used for emphasis - then it goes before the verb - I never was any good at football - emphasis on the word 'was'). If you put it in mid-position it gives the adverb less emphasis, and if you put it at the end, it gives the adverb more emphasis: He easily beat the other runners / He beat the other runners easily.
In a nutshell, linking adverbs go at the beginning (they are linking the clause to what has been written/spoken before) e.g. furthermore, as well as, whereas, therefore, nevertheless, otherwise, maybe, perhaps, then, suddenly. Although adverbs of time commonly occur at the end of a clause (see below), you can use them at the beginning if the adverb isn't the main focus of the clause (Afterwards, I thought I had probably made a mistake). Also, you will often see expressions of time with 'Every' at the beginning of a clause (Every time I see you my heart skips a beat!)
The following types of adverbs usually go in the middle, between the subject and the main verb or after the first auxiliary or modal verb. In questions, the adverb is positioned between the subject and the main verb, not the auxiliary 'do':
Frequency: often, frequently, usually, never, sometimes, very often, always
Degree: really, very, quite
Certainty: probably, possibly, certainly, definitely
Already generally goes in the mid-position but may also go at the end of a clause!
I've already finished my assignment (after an auxiliary verb)
I often travel to Spain (between the subject and the main verb)
I usually fly but I do sometimes go on the boat (here positioned after the auxiliary)
I'd certainly recommend it (after a modal verb)
It's very relaxing (after 'to be')
Do you ever get seasick? (question form between the subject and the main verb, NOT the auxiliary)
The following types of adverbs generally go at the end of a clause:
Manner: badly, slowly, well, happily, terribly, quickly, carefully
Place: here, there, upstairs, downstairs
Quantity: a bit, a lot
Time: today, every day, afterwards, already, eventually, every year
Plus, adverbs that don't end in -ly - well, hard, fast can only go at the end of a clause
They sell maps here
I like your brother a lot
I'm leaving for Spain today
Jenny speaks French well but German really badly!
Have you finished that assignment already?
You need to get here fast!
The adverb 'really' is an emphasising adverb and these adverbs go before the word they are emphasising. This is why we see examples in English such as John plays the guitar really well or My father was extremely angry when he saw the damage to the car.
Finally, when more than one adverb is used, the normal order to place them in is as follows: manner, place, frequency, time, then purpose: Messi played brilliantly today (manner, time); Bill ran quickly downstairs in order to catch the postman (manner, place, purpose).
the article
THE = known (Definite Article)
A/AN = unknown (Indefinite Article)
The use of the Article in English might be more difficult for you to understand if you don't use an article in your own language (e.g. Russian, Japanese) but here are some basics....
We use THE if both the speaker and the listener know which noun we are talking about OR if there is only one noun:
I'm going to the hospital on Tuesday (we know which hospital)
The Queen will be visiting our village in the summer (there is only one Queen)
I'm the safest driver in our family (superlative adjective = there is only one)
If we talk about things that most people can relate to, we also use THE, even if we don't know exactly that particular one:
I always fall asleep on the train
We also use THE if the object has already been mentioned (see Camino Blog for more examples):
A woman in York was hit by a stolen car outside her house yesterday. The car drove off at speed and the driver has not yet been identified. The woman is recovering in hospital.
We use THE for countries that have plural names or whose names use the words Kingdom, States, Republic:
The Netherlands
The United States (this 'the' is commonly forgotten by English learners!)
The People's Republic of China
....and we use THE for seas, rivers, deserts, mountains and island groups:
The Pacific Ocean; The Danube; The Gobi Desert; The Sierra Nevada; The Scilly Isles.
We generally DON'T use THE for continents, countries, counties, towns, streets and lakes:
We travelled across Europe and Africa until we reached Kenya. After a couple of nights in Nairobi we travelled on to Lake Victoria.
Jim lives on Canal Street in Oxford.
We DON'T use THE when we talk about 'things in general':
I love dogs - they're so loyal and always pleased to see you!
(Have you seen the dogs? I left the door open and I think they've run off! - the speaker and listener here know these dogs)
We DON'T use an article after the possessive 's:
Have you seen Lucy's purse anywhere?
Finally, we DON'T use the article when we talk about nouns (often institutions) when they are used for their primary purpose. These nouns include: bed, church, class, court, home, hospital, prison, school, sea, town, university, work. We DO use the article if they are used for any other purpose: I stayed in bed instead of going to work; I sat on the bed to read your letter.
We use A/AN to talk about ONE person/thing:
I've just bought a new car
Put the kettle on - I'm dying for a cup of tea!
We use A/AN if we don't know which noun we're talking about:
He was hit by a car and he's in a hospital somewhere in Paris - we're ringing round now to try and find him (we don't know which car or which hospital)
We use A/AN when talking about professions:
She's a midwife
My sister is an anaesthetist
We also use A/AN to define people or things:
A cardiologist is a doctor who specialises in the heart
He was a terrible husband - he spent all his money on beer
We use A/AN in some measurement expressions:
30 miles an hour
Three times a year
90p a kilo
We DON'T use A/AN if the noun is plural or if it is an uncountable noun:
Those types of dogs have very long legs and often escape over the fence
They say turmeric has lots of health benefits
We DON'T use the article with illnesses:
I think I'm coming down with tonsillitis
You've got gout Mr Smith - you need to cut down on your drinking!
I need an urgent appointment with the dentist - I've got really bad toothache! (Re: 'an' urgent appointment - we're unspecific - any appointment will do!)
BUT:
We DO use A/AN with a cold and a headache:
Turn that music down! It's giving me earache and a headache!
I think my immunity's low - I'm getting a cold again!
With parts of the body we use possessive pronouns (he broke his arm) UNLESS we are using a preposition and then we use THE:
The cricket ball hit him right in the eye and he got a terrible bruise
He punched him on the jaw and he fell to the ground, unconscious
The good news is, we can take it or leave it with seasons:
It's fine where I live in (the) summer but terribly cold in (the) winter
To be
It seems to be that the verbs we use the most often have the most irregularities and 'to be' is right up there at the top of irregular conjugations! 'To be' is a main verb in its own right (Present Simple and Past Simple) AND is used as an auxiliary verb (Present Continuous, Past Continuous, Passive.)
FORMATION:
Present Simple
I am
You are
He/She/It is
We are
They are
Don't forget the contractions I'm, you're, he's/she's/it's, we're, they're.
I'm a midwife
You're a fool
She's a physiotherapist
We're not happy about this
They're all at lunch
Past Simple
I was
You were
He/She/It was
We were
They were
I was a vet for 30 years
You were in Scotland on that date
He was very happy about the outcome
We were all exhausted after that shift
They were from Russia
Present Participle
being
I'm tired of being your slave, you can wash up for once!
Past Participle
been
He had been in theatre for six hours and needed a break
Where have you been? We've all been waiting for you!
Imperative
be
Be a good boy for grandma!
NB: We use 'do (not)' with 'be' in negative imperatives, i.e. when we're telling someone NOT to do something:
Don't be so silly!
Don't be cross with me!
Present/Past Continuous
I am sitting at the computer
He was walking along the road
We also use 'be' to describe physical conditions:
I'm hungry
He's thirsty
She's cold
It's warm today
We were hot after our long walk
Were you tired after that shift?
They're too afraid to go into the forest without a guide
(We can also use 'feel' with these words)
We use 'be' to describe age, height, colour, weight, size:
I'm 44 (years old)
I'm 5 feet 5 (in height, feet and inches)
I'm 62 kilos
What size are you (clothes)? - I'm a 12
What colour is his hair? He's blond
Note also the set expressions to be right, to be wrong, to be lucky:
You were right about the weather, it was really cold out!
But you were wrong about it raining - I didn't need my umbrella after all
It's lucky I've seen you, the meeting's been cancelled, did you know?
(Please see the Grammar Rays entries on 'to have' and 'to do' for brief notes on other auxiliary verbs.)
Choose and lose
There's something about these two words that often causes problems for English language learners - it's
probably that troublesome trio of conjugation, pronunciation and spelling! Here's a quick refresher - it's a good
idea to pay particular attention to the vowel sounds and the past simple forms.
CHOOSE - to select from a number of possibilities. Pick is also a synonym.
Choose rhymes with blues, cruise, shoes, snooze, booze, whose and lose.
For those who find the phonetic symbols helpful it looks like this: /ʧuːz/ - note that the last letter is a 'z' sound
and not an 's'.
The third person singular (he/she/it) of the present simple is chooses - this is a two syllable word and both
the 's' letters sound like a 'z' - /ʧuːzɪz/.
I always choose the beef when I'm in this restaurant and my husband always chooses the lamb
The past simple is chose, still with the same 'z' sound at the end - /ʧəʊz/. This rhymes with rose, to close, knows,
pose, toes, prose.
We chose not to fly to Italy this year and decided to drive instead
The past participle catches people out! It's chosen (rhymes with frozen)
I was so late to the restaurant that my friends had already chosen the wine
Make a note of the spelling for the present participle - choosing - we drop the letter 'e' but the 's' keeps the
'z' sound.
I'm always choosing the wrong horse - I really should stop betting on them!
LOSE - to come to be without. Misplace is a synonym. Rhymes with choose.
Written phonetically it looks like /luːz/.
The third person singular of the present simple is loses, with the same 'z' sounds as chooses.
My football team always loses when we play at that ground
The past simple is lost and the 's' sounds like an 's' not a 'z' - /lɒst/. It rhymes with cost and frost.
I lost my car keys on Monday and they've still not turned up
The past participle is also lost
My brother has lost his dog - he thinks she may have run away
The present participle also drops the letter 'e' and is spelt losing (with a 'z' sound)
This company is losing too much money, I shan't be investing any more money in it.
Don't confuse the verb lose with the adjective loose (not held together or fixed, free from anything that restrains), rhymes with goose, Bruce, truce, moose, noose and juice. The 's' in loose is an 's' sound, not a 'z'! (/luːs/)
The rope became loose and the boat floated away
The cows got loose and wandered all over the village
I don't tie my hair up when I'm at home, I always wear it loose.
comparatives and superlatives
What are they?
Comparatives compare two nouns (Reykjavik is colder than Seville)
Superlatives are used to compare something to a group of things or people (St Petersburg is the coldest place I've ever been)
How are they formed?
This generally depends on how many syllables the adjective has:
One syllable adjectives: Comparatives usually end in -er and Superlatives in -est (older, colder; tallest, meanest)
Spelling note: If the adjective has only one vowel and one consonant, double the consonant - fatter, thinner; saddest, biggest.
Also, adjectives that end in -e just add -r or -st, so you don't end up with 'ee': later; nicest, bluest.
He never gives to charity - he's the meanest old man who ever lived!
She's got the bluest eyes I've ever seen
I've got two siblings - a sister who's older than me, and a younger brother
Jack is taller than David, but Mike is the tallest of all - he's well over 6 feet!
Two syllable adjectives: Comparatives add either -er or 'more' and Superlatives add -est or 'the most' - you can often choose which you prefer.
Adjectives ending in -y change to -ier and -iest.
Check in a good dictionary for particular adjectives when you're unsure.
busy-busier-busiest
happy-happier-happiest
easy-easier-easiest
common-commoner-commonest
simple-simpler-simplest
clever-cleverer-cleverest
quiet-quieter-quietest
The shops were busier/more busy than I expected and I was in town for ages
The shops are always busiest/the most busy on Saturdays
Shopping took forever - it was the most busy/busiest I've seen it for ages
NB: more busier or most busiest would be wrong!
Three or more syllable adjectives add 'more' and 'the most':
intelligent-more intelligent-the most intelligent
practical-more practical-the most practical
beautiful-more beautiful-the most beautiful
Obviously I think my daughter is the most beautiful girl in the world!
Can you fix this broken shelf? You're more practical than me
He'll fix it easily - he's the most practical man I've ever met!
Naturally, as this is the English language, there are irregular forms of Comparatives and Superlatives! You do actually need to learn them as they're very common words.
Irregulars
good-better-best
bad-worse-worst
far-further-furthest OR farther-farthest
old-older-oldest OR elder-eldest
little-less-least
much-more-most
Adverbs add more: Could you talk more quietly? Can you walk more slowly please? I can't keep up!
Have you noticed that with comparatives we use the word 'than'?
Today is much colder than yesterday
Tuesday was windier than Wednesday
Friday is going to be sunnier than Saturday
Betty is older than me but she's not the oldest woman in our group
John is a good guitar player but David is better than him. Jim is better still, but he's not even the best in the group - that's Bill - he's an amazing player!
Take a note of the word order and the use of the Article with the construction the....the for things that change together:
The + comparative + subject + verb (x2)
The older I get, the more I feel the cold
The warmer it gets, the happier I am
And finally, we don't use 'very' with comparatives. We use much, far, a lot, lots, any, no, rather, a bit, even, a little, way (informal):
I find French pronunciation much harder than Spanish
Miss Smith is a far better surgeon than Miss Jones
He's been feeling a lot better since the operation
Are you eating enough? You look a bit thinner than the last time I saw you
You're SO wrong! Man City are a way better team than United! (Informal)
CONDITIONAL TENSES
The conditional tenses in English are usually associated with 'if' clauses and describe something that may or may not happen in the present or future, or might have happened in the past but didn't! You can look at it as two actions, one of which is the reason for the other. The two actions appear in a sentence as two clauses, a main clause (the consequence of the action) and a dependent clause (commonly headed with 'if'.) The 'if' clause can go before or after the other clause:
If you smoke, you increase your risk of cancer
You increase your risk of cancer if you smoke
To simplify the understanding of these conditionals we group them into 4 different types: General (or Zero) Conditional, and First, Second and Third Conditionals. Here is a brief summary of their formations and uses:
General (Zero) Conditional
This is used when we are discussing general rules or a fact, and although it can be used with other tenses depending on context, it's generally seen using the present tense in both clauses:
The dog barks if she hears the postman
If I drink wine, I get a migraine
NB: We use a comma between clauses if the 'if' clause starts the sentence.
As the General Conditional is used for things that are always true, you could argue that it's not actually a real conditional, which also means you can substitute the word 'if' for the word 'when' without changing the meaning. On the other hand, the First, Second and Third Conditionals are used to express hypothesis and opinion, and the different levels of their probability.
First Conditional (High probability)
This is used when we are discussing probable future events with a high probability that they will happen. It's formed by using if + present tense in the dependent clause, with will in the main clause:
If she collapses, we'll call an ambulance
If I get a headache, I'll take some paracetamol
Second Conditional (Low probability)
This is used when we are discussing a hypothesis or future events that are unlikely to happen. It's formed by using
'if' + past simple in the dependent clause and would + infinitive in the main clause. (It's sometimes a bit difficult to understand that a past tense can describe future time!)
If I had time, I'd go to the gym (but I haven't got time, so I don't go!)
If I were a doctor, I'd specialise in paediatrics (use of the subjunctive of 'to be' in an unreal situation)
Would you recognise her if you saw her again? (Implies you're unlikely to see her again, as opposed to the more likely: Will you recognise her if you see her again? First Conditional)
If I saw him again, I'd punch him on the nose
Essentially, in the First Conditional, the speaker thinks the thing could happen and in the Second Conditional, they don't think it will!
Third Conditional (Speculation)
This is used when we are discussing an unfulfilled event in the past. You could almost call it a 'speculative' tense as you speculate what would have happened if... It's formed by using 'if' + past perfect in the dependent clause and would have in the main clause:
If I'd woken up earlier, I wouldn't have missed my appointment
If the anaesthetist hadn't arrived when she did, the patient would have died
I would have passed first time if I'd studied harder!
Extra points:
The use of may, might and could can reduce the certainty in the main clause:
If we're fully staffed, we will operate tomorrow (this will happen if we're fully staffed)
If we're fully staffed, we might operate tomorrow (even if we are fully staffed, the operation might not happen due to other reasons)
If the anaesthetist hadn't arrived when she did, the patient might have died (less likely than would have died)